MGMT 314 (Ethics in Management) - Ethical Evolution of Modern American Businesses

 Abstract

This essay discusses the positive advancement of ethics in U.S. based businesses over the last 130 years. It then reviews common unethical practices and how leadership addresses these challenges. The essay then examines how the 2007-2008 financial crisis was essentially a people process failure as good-intentioned choices led to significant negative consequences. Lastly it argues that minimizing discrimination and supporting diversity, in tandem with corporate outreach and employee volunteerism programs benefit both the business and the employees’ lives.

 

Introduction

In 1882, one of the richest men in the United States and world let slip his limited and stunted view on ethics, when he told a reporter “The public be damned” (Gordon, 1989). In an age of tycoons when the interests of many common workers and citizens were ignored or overlooked, William Henry Vanderbilt conveyed, in those four words, his disregard for the common welfare. Through the years, American businesses with the encouragement of lawmakers, have made progress in promoting ethics and supporting the common good. Legislation like the Clayton Antitrust Act and various other types of reforms are evidence that businesses have positively evolved over the years. While most workers don’t have access to make decisions which impact their corporation or public, many grapple with day-to-day, common ethical choices dealing with theft, conflicts of interest and dishonesty. Less common, but nonetheless impactful, are the choices of people which led to the 2007-2008 financial meltdown, in which it is learned that sometimes people’s good ethical intentions lead to negative consequences. Lastly, evidence of modern American businesses positively evolving from an ethics perspective is the continued efforts to eradicate discrimination and to promote diversity, along with the increased focus on corporate efforts to boost outreach in the community through company sponsored events and employee volunteerism.

Modern Businesses Have Positively Evolved

American businesses have evolved significantly from Vanderbilt’s time. In his era, many workers and even the public had little to no recourse to reign in the tycoons and barons who controlled vast sums of money and assets. Ginsberg (2017) argues the United States, with its democratic form of government, was able to modulate businesses’ practices and establish legal reforms while avoiding the reactionary and violent workers’ revolutions which occurred in Russia and Germany. Workers who suffered from poor working conditions and inadequate pay benefited from the Clayton Antitrust Act by having the opportunity to work for competitors instead of a single monopoly.

Ginsberg (2017) also documents the rebirth of American industry after World War II which saw the creation of many shareholders as average citizens who began investing on a significant scale. This pivot brought a dip in concern for business ethics. However, by the 1970s, the American stockholder and consumer began to take a prominent position. Worker pensions and retirement savings accounts rose significantly. While improvements in ethics continued to advance, financial fraud increased from the 1980s to the early 2000s. In light of negative impacts on shareholders and employees due to the downfall of Enron and the Bernie Madoff Ponzi scheme, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act were passed to support the positive evolution of holding powerful corporations accountable for unethical behaviors.

Common Forms of Unethical Behavior

While most workers lack the ability to influence corporate or public decisions, they frequently face everyday ethical challenges. As discussed in Schwartz (2017), a national survey indicated that more than 40% of U.S. workers witnessed unethical behavior in the prior year. The more common misconduct included theft, conflicts of interest, and dishonesty. From stealing small items such as pencils and sticky notes, to falsifying travel and expense reports, many workers try to justify their unethical actions by claiming ignorance or even accidental intentions. However, upon deeper investigation, employees’ actions are usually a result of putting self-interest above the interests of the business, or in other words, the worker faces a conflict of interests.

In an attempt to create greater clarity and to assist workers in making correct moral decisions, leaders can establish core ethical values and then translate those values into policies (Schwartz, 2017). Core values are usually captured and explained in an organization’s code of ethics. The code of ethics begins with a mission statement and then it explores and clarifies the organization’s values. The code of ethics is then used as the basis to make policies and employee conduct more explicit. A code of conduct is a part of a code of ethics. The code of conduct is generally more detailed and rule-based, as it explains specific standards of business conduct which employees are expected to uphold in their day-to-day work activities.

While these low-level, very common unethical behaviors appear in day-to-day business operations, they may not necessarily lead to major ethical scandals. Fewer and far between are ethical choices people make, which have profound consequences on society and millions of people’s lives. One such example is the 2007-2008 financial meltdown.

Unethical Behavior in the 2007-2008 Financial Meltdown?

The catalyst for the 2007-2008 financial crisis was the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) created in 1977 and reinforced in the late 1990s which was to allow low-income families access to a home and to "make widespread homeownership a national goal" (Richman, 2012). Some may debate if the CRA truly was the cause of this failure, however Agarwal (2012) shows data indicating banks’ evaluations of loan origination was driven by the CRA which led to riskier banking decisions. Without the CRA, banks normally would not have approved of these loans. While most banks avoided these types of risks, Government Sponsored Enterprises such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, took on these risks and issued loans to less qualified homebuyers mainly because they were not only mandated by the federal government, but also backed by the government, meaning the risk would be ultimately born by the government. The dot-com economic bubble and the September 11th terrorist attack further accelerated the lowering of interest rates to stimulate the economy, only increasing demand for home mortgages. Banks then offloaded the risk of sub-prime mortgages by bundling the uncertain loans into mortgage-backed securities and then sold them to investors around the world.

While the U.S. government and banking institutions shoulder the blame for this significant financial crisis, it appears the intent of these choices were made in good faith, and this was essentially a people failure as opposed to a capital market process failure. The intent of the CRA was to break the barriers of entry for many Americans who could otherwise never live in a home. In fact, when the CRA was created in 1977, it was targeting banks who refused to issue "mortgage loans in distressed areas of a city" (Boatright, 2007, p. 160) which then had the effect of further urban decay. Therefore, from a deontological ethical perspective, politicians from the 1970s and 1990s felt it was their duty to affect positive changes to incentivize banks to take on more risk. And from a utilitarian perspective, it could be argued the benefits of wider home ownership outweigh the risks banks had to endure. There was no unethical behavior and intent per se, but perhaps there were unintended consequences of the impetus for change, which was the U.S. government intending to promote the common good. However, in the end, the impact was so extensive and severe, it caused the biggest economic meltdown in the world since the Great Depression.

Eradicating Discrimination and Promoting Diversity

Hiring managers and leadership need to be discerning regarding who they hire so that organizational goals and objectives can be adequately accomplished. To this end, hiring or firing decisions should not solely be based on gender, race, age or other biased considerations. Both the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.) and The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2024) preclude the discrimination of workers based on their race, color, religion, sex, national origin or age. In summary, employees and potential workers should be considered and treated fairly and not be subject to discrimination based on factors out of their control. Historically, too often, management and leadership were targeting minority groups by excluding them for consideration for hire, promotion or pay increases.

Today, many leaders and managers recognize the power of diversity in such factors as gender, ethnicity, and neurological processing. A business which operates in various communities or countries should reflect the makeup of the society in which it operates (Collins and Edgewood College School of Business, 2013). By representing the diverse composition of a society, the business places itself in a position to comprehend and better serve its customers, as well as to avoid potential legal troubles.

One recent example of leadership mismanaging a discrimination issue is that of The Results Company, LLC (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2024a). After hiring a disabled (blind) worker, the company refused to accommodate her and subsequently fired her. She had requested screen reader software to perform her job, but the company took minimal steps to assist. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has filed a lawsuit against the company in order to compensate the fired worker as well as to ensure The Results Company updates its procedures for managing similar situations in the future.

Corporate Outreach and Volunteerism

Beyond ensuring due diligence in preventing discrimination and instilling positive procedures for a diverse workforce, businesses can do even more to ensure their brand and social reputation remain positive and even improve. Programs which support corporate outreach and employee volunteer efforts have empirically shown they help the organization improve performance, increase brand recognition, improve customer loyalty and improve goodwill in society (Longenecker, et al., 2013). When employees are given opportunities to volunteer, studies have shown that these efforts go a long way to improve employee values such as “compassion, humility, sympathy, empathy, and joy” (Longenecker, et al., 2013, p. 10) and that this has the added effect of promoting a work-life balance as well as camaraderie with fellow-workers. In the era of quiet quitting, a Harvard Business Review (Moss, 2023) article confirms the old adage of a happy workforce being a productive workforce. Moss (2023) notes research stating that when workers are happy, there is a 13% bump in productivity, but when they are not engaged (e.g. quietly quitting) they are unhappy and depriving businesses of $8.8 trillion worth of work. As a result, leadership should support and promote corporate outreach and employee volunteer programs to not only benefit the bottom line of the business, but to improve the lives of the workers and employees.

Conclusion

In conclusion, over the last 130 years, American businesses, with lawmakers' support, have advanced in ethics which have benefitted the common good. Laws like the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act show this progress. While most employees lack decision-making power in corporations, they face day-to-day ethical challenges, such as theft and conflicts of interest. Some ethical choices, like those leading to the 2007-2008 financial crisis, have had unintended negative consequences. However, businesses continue to evolve by combating discrimination, promoting diversity, and increasing corporate social responsibility through community outreach, company-sponsored events, and employee volunteerism, reinforcing their commitment to ethical growth and sustainability. 

References

Agarwal, S., National Bureau of Economic Research., Benmelech, E., Bergman, N., & Seru, A. (2012). Did the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) Lead to Risky Lending? National Bureau of Economic Research.

Boatright, J. R. (2007). Finance Ethics. A Companion to Business Ethics, 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998397.ch13

Collins, D., & Edgewood College School of Business. (2013, July 18). Best Practices on Employee Diversity. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/embed/5egW09F1AXQ?wmode=opaque&rel=0

Ginsberg, D. (2017, April 21). Evolution of business ethics in the US: From exploitation to ethics? California Management Review. https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2017/04/evolution-of-business-ethics/ 

Gordon, J. S. (1989). “The Public Be Damned.” AMERICAN HERITAGE. https://www.americanheritage.com/public-be-damned

Longenecker, C. O., Beard, S., & Scazzero, J. A. (2013). What about the workers? The workforce benefits of corporate volunteer programs. Development and Learning in Organizations, 27(1), 9-12. https://doi.org/10.1108/14777281311291213 

Moss, J. (2023, October 20). Creating a Happier Workplace Is Possible — and Worth It. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2023/10/creating-a-happier-workplace-is-possible-and-worth-it 

Richman, S. (2012, October 14). Clinton’s Legacy: The Financial and Housing Meltdown. Reason.com. https://reason.com/2012/10/14/clintons-legacy-the-financial-and-housin/ 

Schwartz, M. S. (2017). Business ethics : An ethical decision-making approach. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Www.eeoc.gov. https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/title-vii-civil-rights-act-1964 

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2024). The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Www.eeoc.gov. https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/age-discrimination-employment-act-1967 

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2024a). EEOC Sues The Results Companies for Disability Discrimination. US EEOC. https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/eeoc-sues-results-companies-disability-discrimination 

College of Stoic Philosophers Stoic Essentials Studies - What to Expect & Primers

School of Athens by Raphael

 The College of Stoic Philosophers is an on-line school to help people learn and apply Stoicism. In my experience, most people decide to apply to the college and enroll in the Stoic Essentials Course (SES) because there has been some catalyst in their life (e.g. needing improved resiliency, self-exploration, continuing education). The school has observed that there are a lot of people who apply, but a good amount of people don't finish, despite paying $100 for the course. I've had 15 students assigned to me, 8 completed the course, 4 either dropped the course or simply stopped communicating, and 3 are in progress and close to finishing (as of February 2025).

The purpose of this post is to simply give people a bit more detail as to what to expect, in terms of time commitment and work.

Up front, applicants will need to write a "know thyself" essay which is at least 1000 words. The essay is really meant to help the applicant think about why they have decided to join the college as a student and take the SES course (see the SES site for a number of questions the essay needs to address). Besides the essay, the applicant will share a bit more context about him or herself so that their potential mentor can learn about them. The cost of SES is $100 (as of 2025).

After they submit their application, their essay is shared with a faculty member (the mentor), who will read the essay and take the applicant as a student.

After a student is assigned, they are granted access to Moodle (the learning software) after which the student needs to contact (email) their mentor to schedule a conference. This initial meeting usually occurs over video-conference. In the conference, the mentor will explain and provide an overview of SES, and ensure the student has a copy of the course material (John Sellars' book titled Stoicism).

SES is divided into two parts: 4 modules of theory covering an introduction, logic, physics and ethics) and 4 modules on practice (transition, Stoic practices, case studies and essay on duty). During the first 4 modules, the student reads Sellars' Stoicism, takes notes, answers questions and completes a few quizzes. During the second 4 modules, the student goes through a series of practices and writing in an effort to think about how to apply and incorporate Stoicism in their life. In brief, you will need to read a book, take a few quizzes, and write several short answers to questions and write a few short essays.

It is recommended the student take two weeks to complete each module. If the student dedicates 2 to 3 hours per week to read and respond to the short answer sections and brief quizzes, for a total of 4 to 6 hours per module, then there is plenty of time for them to complete SES in two months. I would recommend potential SES students plan to set aside 2 to 3 hours per week over the course of two months, for a total of 16 to 24 hours of effort.

What should you do before you decide to take the leap into SES? Some students already have a deep philosophical or religious background, while others might not know anything about the topics of logic, physics or ethics (I certainly knew nothing of these topics when I took SES). Depending on your level, I would recommend the following primers (if you're brand new to philosophy, watch and read everything, but if you are familiar with philosophy, read the last two articles).

• What is Philosophy?: Crash Course Philosophy #1 by Hank Green
• What is Philosophy? - First Lecture of the Semester by Jeffrey Kaplan
• The History of Philosophy: Origins of Ancient Philosophy Around the Globe by Kelly Macquire
• Socrates (469 - 399 B.C.E.) by James M. Ambury
• Stoicism by Marion Durand, Simon Shogry, Dirk Baltzly

After these primers, below are other resources to articles or podcasts which the Stoicism student should read / listen to either before, during or after taking SES.

• Epictetus' Enchiridion
• Marcus Aurelius' Meditations
• Chris Fischer's Stoicism on Fire podcast

Stoicism has become wildly popular over the last 20 years, but in particular there was a significant spike in interest during the COVID-19 pandemic, and interest continues to be high in 2025. That continued interest leads many, like myself, to publish and share free, on-line resources on the topic of Stoicism. The above links will get you started and primed for SES. Beyond these resources, you will find hundreds of books, videos, on-line articles, blogs and other content to guide you on your way!

Welcome to philosophy and Stoicism!

MGMT 314 (Ethics in Management) - Historical Perspectives in Business Ethics and Pay Gaps

The writing prompt for week 2 of this class was rather interesting and pertinent to my current job as well as current events.

The prompt was "From your perspective, what are two of the most interesting historical ethical dilemmas that we have faced as a society? How do they relate to our reading material from weeks #1 and #2?"

"How did Adam Smith justify the ethics of capitalism? How does capitalism fit in with modern business life and how does it impact ethical dilemmas that you have seen or heard of in the workplace?  Use examples to support your positions."

Besides answering the prompt, we were supposed to weave a current event from an article on CNBC.com from the business section.

Below is my response.

Human civilization and ethics have evolved over centuries. By the time Adam Smith appeared in history, he based his ideas and ethics on forbearers like Locke. While Locke recognized life, liberty and property as natural rights, he fell short in acknowledging equal rights and status of class between land owners and laborers (Schweigert, 2016). The book notes of Locke, "not only did their low station in life show that they were incapable of rational conduct, but their poverty showed their moral depravity as well" (Schweigert, 2016, p. 73). Smith went further than Locke and argued that "the property which every man has in his own labour, as it is the original foundation of all other property" (Schweigert, 2016, p. 74). Therefore, capital in Smith's view is not simply land and physical assets, but also the physical and even mental work of the individual. This idea still finds relevance in modern business life in which individual workers ought to be compensated fairly for the physical and mental work they produce, regardless of their gender or race. Even still, there are ethical dilemmas which modern workers and corporations face when it comes to pay gaps.

While there are many ethical dilemmas, generally speaking I think historical dilemmas related to pay gaps and race seem to have long-standing dialogues which impact our society even today. One article from our reading this week (Shin, 2014) discusses the pay gap between executives and average workers for American companies. It notes that the pay gap actually decreased between the years of 1940 to 1970, but then after 1970 the gap widened and then significantly increased in the 1990s. To give a sense of just how significant the pay gap grew, the ratio of CEO pay to average worker was between 30 and 120 from around 1940 to 1970, but then that ratio grew to over 270 by the 1990s. The article further noted the key drivers for how that gap either decreased or increased.  If workers form a union, then the pay gap can decrease, however, if "the CEO has a finance background" or if the CEO is an external hire, then the pay gap tends to increase (Shin, 2014, p. 1339).

Related to the executive to average worker gap, there are also gaps in pay between races. As more countries enter the global economy, the pay gap in job sectors becomes very apparent. For example, Sindwani (2019) notes that U.S. IT workers are paid eight times more than Indian IT workers. This pay gap has driven many U.S. based companies to outsource and offshore work to India. In fact, this pay gap has been leveraged through the H-1B visa program which has recently been in the news again. Several years ago, 60 Minutes (CBS News, 2017) ran a segment explaining this program and how many American companies have hired Indian workers for much less pay so they could replace American workers.

In both these cases, there appears to be a dilemma: should the company continue to find ways to deliver the same product for less cost, or should the company keep or increase costs but pay workers more? This dilemma may only become worse as more automation from Artificial Intelligence (AI) replaces many workers, in which companies do not have to pay health insurance or other benefits for AI bots.  Also, these bots can work 24 hours a day. One company has plans for rolling out and implementing AI (Daniel, 2024) after which it plans to cut its workforce in half. While this company increased pay for its employees by more than 70%, its overall workforce will be reduced.  This is one way a company can cut costs while addressing pay gaps, but then this introduces another dilemma: do companies have an obligation to hire people for the sake of giving people a job?

Another ethical dilemma businesses face is highlighted in the recent news article section of CNBC (Repko, 2024). Many U.S. based companies have implemented programs to advance diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) in their workforce, especially since the death of George Floyd. However, due to pressure from consumers as well as pressure to reduce costs, many companies like Walmart are cutting DEI programs. Some companies contend that their DEI programs actually help them become more competitive and deliver a better product to the market, thus increasing revenues. However, other companies cite market research and consumer backlash as reasons to drop their DEI programs.

Speaking personally from a perspective of working in a global company and having worked with hundreds of teams and people from all over the United States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Hungary, Malaysia, India and the Philippines, I can confidently state that executive management has done it's best to move work and resources outside the United States to not only reduce costs, but to also avoid high standards of diversity, equity and inclusion set in and by the United States. While executives can claim they embrace DEI standards for workers in the U.S. (which may account for 20% of their workforce), they can ignore these standards in India and other places, which accounts for 80% of their workforce. In fact, almost half of the human work performed by my company is conducted out of India, which still lives by a caste system mentality. While globalization and modernization has eroded the influence of the Indian caste system (Alam, 2023), it still has sway in many business aspects today.

References

60 Minutes, & CBS News. (2017). “60 Minutes” examines H-1B visas outsourcing American jobs. In CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/video/60-minutes-examines-h-1b-visas-outsourcing-american-jobs/

Alam, M. (2023). Occupational and Educational Changes in Indian Caste System: A Systematic Review. Contemporary Voice of Dalit. https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X231186255

Daniel, A. (2024). Klarna plans to nearly halve workforce as AI replaces human jobs. In Press Association. Press Association Limited.

Repko, M. (2024, November 26). Walmart pulls back on DEI efforts, removes some LGBTQ merchandise from website. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2024/11/26/walmart-pulls-back-on-dei-efforts-removes-some-lbgtq-merchandise-.html

Schweigert, F. J. (2016). Business Ethics Education and the Pragmatic Pursuit of the Good. Cham Springer International Publishing.

Shin, T. (2014). Explaining Pay Disparities between Top Executives and Nonexecutive Employees: A Relative Bargaining Power Approach. Social Forces, 92(4), 1339–1372. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sou004

Sindwani , P. (2019, June 11). Here’s how much an IT employee makes in different countries. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.in/heres-how-much-does-an-it-employee-makes-in-different-countries/articleshow/69739244.cms

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Media and Celebrity Death

 Introduction

The case study entitled Celebrity Death in the Media (Williams & Stroud, 2020) discusses the context of a controversial tweet after the unexpected death of the NBA superstar Kobe Bryant. In January 2020, Bryant died in a helicopter crash. While many fans and media outlets expressed shock over Bryant’s death and appreciation for all his philanthropic efforts through his life, a journalist at the Washington Post named Felicia Sonmez tweeted an article from 2016 which recounted Bryant’s rape accusation from 2003. Bryant’s accuser ultimately settled out of court and no jury found him guilty of rape, however Sonmez wanted to seize on the moment to add to the national conversation about rape victims who are silenced by powerful people as part of the #MeToo movement. This essay will first compare and contrast the values on display in this case, including whether speaking ill of the recent deceased is taboo or not. It will then discuss a few principles journalists may consider following when reporting deaths of notable public figures who may have been surrounded by controversy.

Media Values and Taboo of Speaking Ill of Dead

The context of Sonmez’s tweet is significant in understanding why she tweeted it in the aftermath of Bryant’s death. In the middle of the #MeToo movement (Brittain, 2023), in 2018, Sonmez shared her own story of being sexually abused by her former colleague Jon Kaiman (Harris, 2019). She came forward with her story after another woman told her story of suffering similar abuse at the hand of Kaiman. At the time Sonmez told her story, Kaiman was employed by the Los Angeles Times. The Los Angeles Times initiated an investigation into Kaiman after which he resigned from the newspaper. Unfortunately, this was not the end for Sonmez. In the following months there were counter-stories which attempted to cast doubt and bad faith motivations on Sonmez. One podcaster went so far as to state Sonmez had weaponized “female vulnerability” (Harris, 2019). Sonmez argues that for the sexual assault victim, the on-going trauma and defense of her reputation is emotionally draining and that she must constantly assert her voice.

Almost two years after telling her own story, Sonmez witnessed broad media adoration for an arguably (although not legally) accused rapist (Bryant) who had just died in a helicopter crash. To Sonmez, this adulation was repulsive, and she simply wanted to temper the sentiment and build on the #MeToo movement which was still on-going during this time. To put the timeline in context, Jeffrey Epstein was arrested (sex trafficking of minors) six months before Bryant died (Sancton, 2022). In brief, the value on display by Sonmez was to provide the full picture, story and context of a person’s life. To her, she felt the strong rape accusations Bryant had faced in 2003 ought to be discussed amongst all the other deeds from his life. Other journalists felt Sonmez’s tweet about Bryant’s actions from 2003 was ill-timed due to his death (Williams & Stroud, 2020).

From a utilitarian perspective, some like Sonmez argue that all is fair when speaking of the dead. To her, all actions from Bryant’s life are fair game regardless of when people discuss his life (at the time of his death or when he is alive). What matters is that the entire story is told, so the utility of a person’s life can be judged. However, some contend (Sackville, 2019) that speaking ill of the dead is immoral most likely because people don’t want others to speak ill of them when they die. But Sackville goes on to note the life record of the deceased ought to be told wholly and correctly, as in the case of Michael Jackson’s life, with regard to people having believed he molested children. In fact, on the very day Michal Jackson died, the New York Times (Barnes, 2009) published an online article of his death and offered an obituary of him, in which the author bluntly noted Jackson’s strange behavior and how he was accused and indicted for molesting children. Perhaps social media has changed between 2009 and 2020, but it seems there was no similar outrage at this author speaking ill of the recently dead Michael Jackson in 2009.

Ethical Principles for Media to Consider When Reporting on Deaths

In contrasting the reporting of the deaths of Bryant and Jackson along with the controversial aspects of their lives, perhaps the difference is in the tone in which they were represented. In 2009 when Jackson died, social media did not have the size and instant dialogue which those platforms hold today and a few years ago in 2020. Journalists had to ponder and consider what they would write before publicizing it. However, by 2020, reporting of celebrity deaths could be done instantaneously and immediately shared and commented on. Therefore, in Bryant’s death, news of his death was reported immediately, and commentary of his life was instantaneous. Sonmez was another voice which did not stop and consider before publishing.

Besides tone and consideration, journalists and media outlets must be weary and guard against sensationalism (Forward Pathway, 2024). Much of the news and content on social media today is driven by how many clicks and shares an article or post can get. The importance of sensationalizing takes priority over all other ethical and journalistic integrity standards. While Sonmez may have been trying to add context to the debate, there was a bit of sensationalism and edginess to her tweet.

Conclusion

In sum, the reporting of the death of Bryant and Sonmez’s tweet offer an opportunity to discuss the competing values held by the public and various journalists. It also noted how the taboo of speaking ill of the dead may not really be a taboo, but rather it is the tone and discourse of reporting controversial aspects of a person’s life. Therefore, journalists must consider tone and guard against sensationalism. 

References

Barnes, B. (2009, June 26). A Star Idolized and Haunted, Michael Jackson Dies at 50. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/26/arts/music/26jackson.html?ref=obituaries&_r=0 

Brittain, A. (2023, March 27). Me Too movement. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Me-Too-movement 

Forward Pathway. (2024, October 27). Ethical Controversies in Celebrity Death Reporting - Forward Pathway. Forward Pathway. https://www.forwardpathway.us/ethical-controversies-in-celebrity-death-reporting

Harris, L. (2019, November 6). Correcting the record. Columbia Journalism Review. https://www.cjr.org/criticism/felicia-sonmez-metoo.php 

Sackville, K. (2019, March 5). Why is it still so taboo to speak ill of the dead? The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/life-and-relationships/why-is-it-still-so-taboo-to-speak-ill-of-the-dead-20190304-p511o9.html 

Sancton, J. (2022, September 29). #MeToo Five Years Later: A Timeline of Allegations, Accountability and Activism. The Hollywood Reporter. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/metoo-five-years-timeline-allegations-accountability-activism-1235228661/

Williams, K., & Stroud, S. R. (2020, October 5). Celebrity Death in the Media - Center for Media Engagement - Center for Media Engagement. Mediaengagement.org. https://mediaengagement.org/research/celebrity-death-in-the-media/

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Greenwashing

 Introduction

The case study entitled It Ain’t Easy Being Green (Madureira et al., 2023) provides examples of companies which support the environment and ones which seem to be greenwashing. Essentially, the term greenwashing describes companies which are not entirely ethical or honest in the way they are carrying out their environmental duties. This essay will further elaborate on this definition and describe ethical conflicts companies face when dealing with protecting the environment and achieving corporate objectives. It will then suggest principles for companies to improve their environmental ethical stance. Lastly it will offer how Windex could apply these principles in their specific ad campaign.

Greenwashing and Conflict in Ethical Values

Pizzetti et al. (2021) frame the problem of how companies address environmental responsibility demands issued by governments. In response to these demands, some companies earnestly change and become more responsible. However, others do not change their practices and only change superficially in order to appear more environmentally friendly. In brief, companies who greenwash only talk the talk and do not walk the walk. Another form of greenwashing is when “companies use their suppliers as scapegoats for their own shortcomings” (Pizzetti et al., 2021, p. 22). The fundamental problem of greenwashing is the degree of honesty and transparency a company demonstrates. While the public may expect some ambiguity in advertising, those companies which take excessive liberty in their communications are taking more credit for positive practices than they should.

Perhaps the main ethical conflict in values companies face is balancing the goals of maximizing profits for shareholders, pensioners and other dependents with the demands and costs of implementing practices to improve the environment. With every effort to improve their environmental stance, costs eat into revenue which impacts the livelihoods of those who depend on company profits. In sum, the main ethical conflict is determining the right approach to meet the demands for both shareholders and government mandates to protect the environment.

While some companies genuinely improve the environment, most customers won’t be able to objectively discern if the company is truly helping or hurting the environment. To that end, companies should use agreed upon standards to measure their net impact on the environment and steward to that number in an effort to be more transparent for consumers.

Carbon Footprint

The most widely accepted standard for measuring the environmental impact of a business or even consumer is the carbon footprint. The Encyclopædia Britannica (Selin, 2013) defines it as direct emissions from activities like fossil-fuel combustion in manufacturing, heating, and transportation, along with the emissions generated to produce the electricity used for goods and services consumed. Similar to the concept of utilitarianism, the assumption is if each consumer (either a person or a business) reduces its carbon footprint, then the collective environmental impact of the world is lowered.

As the carbon footprint standard is more widely adopted, studies (Schleich & Alsheimer, 2024) have shown that some consumers are willing to directly pay for carbon offsets as well as provide patronage to those businesses who are improving the environment. Consequently, more consumers will begin demanding businesses calculate and disclose their carbon footprint. As more businesses comply, consumers will be better positioned to make informed buying choices.

Reporting and Disclosure

In the past, carbon footprint accounting may have been difficult to calculate and report. There was no widely accepted consensus on metrics nor methodologies. However, after years of trial and error and alignment between countries, the collective work of governments has produced standards, and now new third-party solutions can be deployed on a broad scale. As recently as November 2024, the market is producing ways for businesses to track and report their carbon footprint (CarbonChain has received third-party validation for its latest Corporate Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology and Product Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology, 2024). In this specific example, CarbonChain is a pioneer in the arena by offering a platform which supports businesses and manufacturers by enabling them to calculate and report on their carbon footprint.

Pivots for Windex

In the case study (Madureira et al., 2023), Windex was accused of greenwashing because they claimed their bottles were made of 100% recycled plastic from the ocean, when in fact a good portion of the recycled plastic was not retrieved from the ocean. In an effort to avoid being perceived as greenwashing, perhaps Windex could leverage tools like CarbonChain to report Windex’s carbon footprint number. Therefore, rather than focusing on a specific area of the environment (e.g. removing plastics from the ocean), they could simply report on the net impact of their product on the environment and whether it is decreasing or increasing.

Conclusion

In sum, greenwashing occurs when companies’ words do not align with their environmental actions, especially when they claim they are taking action to support the environment but in fact are not. Standards and tools exist, such as measuring a carbon footprint with technology like CarbonChain, which, if deployed, could help companies become more honest and transparent in their efforts to avoid being perceived as a company which greenwashes. 

References

CarbonChain has received third-party validation for its latest Corporate Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology and Product Carbon Footprint Accounting and Reporting Methodology. (2024, Nov 11). PR Newswire http://ezproxy.apus.edu/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fwire-feeds%2Fcarbonchain-has-received-third-party-validation%2Fdocview%2F3126705741%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D8289 (2024). In Canada NewsWire. PR Newswire Association LLC.

Madureira, K., Williams, K., & Stroud, S. R. (2023, December 7). It ain’t Easy Being Green - Center for Media Engagement - Center for Media Engagement. Mediaengagement.org. https://mediaengagement.org/research/it-aint-easy-being-green/ 

Pizzetti, M., Gatti, L., & Seele, P. (2021). Firms Talk, Suppliers Walk: Analyzing the Locus of Greenwashing in the Blame Game and Introducing ‘Vicarious Greenwashing.’ Journal of Business Ethics, 170(1), 21–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04406-2 

Schleich, J., & Alsheimer, S. (2024). The relationship between willingness to pay and carbon footprint knowledge: Are individuals willing to pay more to offset their carbon footprint if they learn about its size and distance to the 1.5 °C target? Ecological Economics, 219, 108151-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108151 

Selin, N. E. (2013). Carbon Footprint. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/carbon-footprint

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Journalism and Activism

Introduction

The case study entitled Can Journalists also be Activists (O’Malley Gleim et al., 2022) showcases a number of perspectives regarding the topic of whether journalists should be impartial or partial to a particular cause or perceived injustice. While all journalists have values which align with or go against the values of their audience, perhaps the most important set of values all journalists should have are honesty, providing the full context of the story and acknowledging when they depart from objective reporting and begin subjective activism.

Conflicts in Ethical Values

Traditionally, journalists have not been activists (O’Malley Gleim et al., 2022). At least in the United States, journalists have firstly aimed for impartiality in an effort to avoid being perceived as compromised by one side of a story. A free press in the United States and western countries, acts as a counterbalance to centralized, powerful governments and can hold not only governments, but large institutions accountable for their behavior. In order to maintain credibility and to be a trusted source of information for the public, journalists have generally followed the code of ethics outlined by the organization The Radio, Television, and Digital News Foundation (RTDNF), which states “Journalism places the public’s interests ahead of commercial, political and personal interests. Journalism empowers viewers, listeners and readers to make more informed decisions for themselves; it does not tell people what to believe or how to feel” (“Code of Ethics,” 2015). The RTDNF further states, explicitly, that truth, accuracy and facts take priority above all other values. Any type of slanting of information or prevention of full disclosure violates the trust of the public. 

However, when personal values of journalists take priority over total objectivity, they become activists first. Some journalists, “have argued that attempting to prioritize objectivity over justice only leads to privileging oppressive views” and that in some cases, they should take such a hardline stance as assuming “there are not two sides” to a story (O’Malley Gleim et al., 2022, p. 2). In views such as these, the subjective ethical value takes priority over the value of objective reporting. When the public expects objective reporting of circumstances, context and facts, but instead is told there is only one side to a story, the value of “truth and accuracy above all” (“Code of Ethics,” 2015) takes a back seat.

While activism may be allowed and is often expected in today’s culture, complete honesty in reporting and providing the full context of a particular issue ought to be the gold standard. Once these criteria have been met, a journalist may then delineate where objectivity ends and when opinion and activism begin.

Honesty in Reporting

For journalists, honesty in their reporting ought to be paramount. Any deceptive editing or non-disclosure of key facts and ideas would be considered a violation of the rule of honesty. Some journalists (Gordon, et al., 2011) go so far as to contend all forms of deception for attaining the facts should be forbidden. For example, ABC news producers lied on their job applications to be hired on at Food Lion, in order to obtain footage of tainted food. Eventually a jury awarded Food Lion a verdict against ABC. While some of these rulings were overturned on appeal, the case has underscored the need for journalists to always maintain the highest degree of honesty. The author rightly notes that if a reporter crosses one ethical line, what other infractions would they commit in their quest for a scoop? “Assault? Sexual favors? Murder, to make available information that would ‘save society?’” (2011, p. 521).

Providing the Full Context

Context for a story plays a significant role in ensuring honesty reigns supreme. Reporting mere facts, without providing the full context, is a form of dishonesty and one which may frequently be used by activists in order to advance a desired goal. Gordan, et al. succinctly note that “Journalists who provide as much truthful information as is relevant, and report the material in context, serve the public well and need not worry about additional ethical concerns” (2011, p. 107). By providing the context of quotes, actions and events, the entire story is told and retains the respect of the reader and public.

Demarcating Objective Reporting and Subjective Activism

Activism in journalism changes minds and pushes boundaries. However, if an activist journalist truly wants to sway the public, rather than simply reporting to like-minded people, they must not only maintain a high standard of honesty, but also be clear in their intentions. Two media and communications researchers recently noted strategies for modern media organizations to follow with regard to activism. “These [strategies] include self‐reflection on how journalism itself might change through transparency efforts and how it explains the value of journalistic standards to audiences and provides them with insight into editorial operations” (Maurer & Nuernbergk, 2022, p. 2). Unless activist journalists follow some form of disclosure about their activism, they will continue to be minimized and dismissed by a discerning public.

Conclusion

In sum, all journalists hold values that may align with or differ from those of their audience. However, the most essential values journalists should uphold are honesty, presenting the full context of a story, and openly acknowledging when they shift from objective reporting to subjective activism. If they hold to these standards, they will maintain credibility and more importantly, have a greater chance achieving their activist objectives. 

References

Gordon, A. D., Kittross, J. M., Merrill, J. C., Babcock, W. A., Dorsher, M., Armstrong, J. A., Gade, P. J., Newton, J. H., Sheehan, K., & Singer, J. B. (2011). Honesty in Reporting. In Controversies in Media Ethics (3rd ed., pp. 518–522). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829912-29

Maurer, P., & Nuernbergk, C. (2022). Journalism, Activism, and Social Media: Exploring the Shifts in Journalistic Roles, Performance, and Interconnectedness. Media and Communication (Lisboa), 10(3), 1-. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v10i3.5984

O’Malley Gleim, K., Williams, K., & Stroud, S. R. (2022, October 31). Can Journalists also be Activists? - Center for Media Engagement - Center for Media Engagement. Mediaengagement.org. https://mediaengagement.org/research/can-journalists-also-be-activists/

“Code of Ethics.” (2015, June 11). Radio Television Digital News Foundation. Available at: https://www.rtdna.org/content/rtdna_code_of_ethics

COMM 280 (Ethics in Communications) - Ethical Perspectives in Communication

Introduction

Various ethical perspectives are leveraged when determining a course of action or deciding on what and how to communicate. Below are three perspectives, along with explanations, contexts, major tenants and critiques of the perspective.

Virtue Ethics of Aristotle

The first perspective this paper will review is Aristotle’s virtue ethics. Aristotle was a Hellenistic philosopher who taught his students philosophy and who wrote a number of treatises on ethics. His virtue ethics were written in the context of a philosophical dialogue in searching for and defining the Good. In this dialogue, Aristotle contends there is a purpose or aim for the individual and consequently his ethical stance is placed in a teleological perspective. He claims that everyone seeks happiness or to live well (Kraut, 2022) and this is the ultimate aim and Good for all people. In other words, people pursue happiness or living well for its own sake and not for some other aim or purpose.

The major tenets of virtue ethics are based on the ancient Hellenistic premise that humans (and all organisms and things) have a proper function (CrashCourse, 2016). Part of the proper function of humans is to use reason and to develop the proper character traits in order to reach one’s full potential. To that end, virtue ethics elaborate on the moral characteristics a human should have, ensuring they demonstrate the right disposition (neither too much, nor too little). For example, the virtue of courage is the ability to avoid acting the coward (too little courage) and to evade being rash (too much courage) (Kraut, 2022). Furthermore, each unique circumstance and context will demand the proper scale of a particular virtue.

Modern philosophers, such as Adorno question the premise of Aristotle’s aim at the Good. Whyman (2017) reviews Adorno’s critique of Aristotle and contends one of the main criticisms is the idea that our conception of the Good is warped by the world in which we live and therefore we cannot objectively point to a human’s aim. Stated differently, Aristotle’s theory fails to appreciate a significant portion of human existence and suffering. Skeptically speaking, perhaps the Good is in fact to suffer pain and misery.

Johnston (2020) provides a couple examples of virtue ethics in communication in the arena of business. Before demonstrating how this perspective is used, he distinguishes character ethics from action-based ethics. “[A]ction-based ethics asks whether a particular action is ethical, whereas agent-based ethics focuses on the individual agent’s character and motivations and asks whether they are virtuous” (2020). One way to manage and communicate via virtue ethics is to enable a “capabilities approach” (2020), whereby employees are expected to exhibit moral character in their actions and communications. Perhaps a counter example of virtue ethics would be the lack of moral characteristics demonstrated by Enron’s management and how the collapse of that business was due to lack of morals and accountability.

Utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill

The second perspective is Utilitarianism as conceived by John Stuart Mill as well as others who have elaborated on this ethical theory. Early forerunners to Mill’s ideas include many British philosophers such as Shaftesbury, Hutcheson and Hume (Driver, 2009). While these philosophers advanced a strong theological sense, they nonetheless carried the core belief that ethical behavior should promote the greatest happiness or utility for the greatest number of people. Under this theistic, moral system, what is good for the common or general community, is good for the individual, and in turn encourages piety to God.

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill sought “legal and social reform” (2009) and promoted the ideas of their philosophical forebearers by arguing all humans are subject to pleasure and pain, and consequently, correct actions should be based on promoting pleasure and minimizing pain. Bentham laid a strong foundation from which Mill would fine-tune higher pleasures above “simple-minded” ones (2009) as well as distinguish moral actions between humans and other beings such as animals.

Mill’s Utilitarianism, which telos or aim seeks the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people, contained a number of considerations when seeking to find the highest utility of moral action. Driver (2009) notes several ways of attempting to evaluate the utility of moral action, including intensity, duration, assuredness, proximity, consequentiality, and purity. Furthermore, Mill places a premium on rational pleasure over physical pleasure.

In the list of considerations for determining the value of utility is consequentiality. This is perhaps the one aspect of Utilitarianism that is criticized the most (West, 2006). More precisely, how can anyone foresee far enough into the future and determine the utility of an action or choice in order to evaluate if the present choice will be a net positive or not? Related to this critique are the differing levels of individuals’ welfare. If Utilitarianism is to promote the greatest good for the individual, and the net good of all individuals is the aim, how is one able to compare the degree of benefit of a choice between two people? Between untangling “causal ramifications” and determining value judgements of differing individuals, calculating the greatest utility of a choice is “tricky and imprecise at best” (2006, p. 203). 

Perhaps a good example of Utilitarianism being used in a communication ethic, which also demonstrates the critique of the ethic, is what took place during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Herron and Manuel (2022) explain the many considerations the United States government had to contemplate when deciding on and communicating policy to the American public. Torn between shutting the economy down, which would have significant consequences, and allowing the virus to run its course, most officials decided on the former. They rationalized that in the longer term, it would be better to snuff out the virus by implementing lockdowns and take the economic hit. However, some (Pachauri & Pachauri, 2023) have noted that too many lives were lost prematurely, not because of the virus, but because of lockdown policies. The diverging analyses underscore the significant difficulty of assessing the consequentiality of Utilitarian ethics.

John Rawls Theory of Justice

The last ethical perspective of this essay is John Rawl’s theory of justice, which was advanced as a response to the widely adopted view of Utilitarianism. As discussed in the previous section, one of the challenges of Utilitarianism is that individuals’ welfare differ from person to person. John Rawls recognized this and further observed the “significant political and economic inequalities” found in society (Wenar, 2008). Acknowledging the basic structures of society and that significant obstacles inhibit people from leaving and changing societies, Rawls argued for a form of justice based on the idea that society is both able and willing to support the basic needs of all its people, and that its citizens ought to cooperate to equally distribute burdens and benefits. To this end, his deontological perspective is based on two principles. First, individuals have a claim to basic and equal liberties. Second, a society ought to require its citizens have a fair and equal opportunity at jobs, positions and offices and that when a society is faced with choices, the one that presents “the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members” should be the one implemented (2008). One premise of the second principle is that all individuals are capable of contributing to society and thus have something to offer in order for society to distribute goods.

To implement these principles, Rawls asks people to apply a veil of ignorance (BBC Radio 4, 2015). In this thought experiment, when deciding on distribution, people ought to place themselves in a position where they do not know what their lot in life will be. While a rich man might opt for lower taxes, a disadvantaged minority might opt for redistribution of wealth through higher taxes on the rich. But if both these individuals were to make a choice behind a veil of ignorance, they would decide on a course of action that would benefit the least advantaged.

Perhaps the greatest weakness and criticism of Rawls’ theory is the premise of his second principle. First, it potentially violates personal liberties by demanding a social contract be enforced on people who contribute to society. Audard (2007) further notes this social contract “interferes with legitimate transactions among self-interested individuals” (p. 277). In this same work, the author notes others’ objections to Rawls by attacking his underlying premise: all members of a society are able to contribute. If a large portion of society is physically or mentally unable to create goods, then much of his theory falls apart.

John Rawls’s theory of justice can be quite abstract and difficult to implement. However, there appears to be some level of analysis in how his ideas could be put into practice in the way people become eligible for Medicaid. Coursen (2007) investigated how Medicaid policies were written in various states and then assessed these guidelines to determine if they met the conditions for Rawls’s theory of justice. The dissertation found that Medicaid can be distributed fairly if the administrators of the policies believed that equity in health is a moral imperative and if they are willing to enforce that perspective.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this review explained three ethical perspectives: virtue ethics, Utilitarianism and Rawls’s theory of justice. It provided some context in which the framework was created, and it elaborated the major tenants of the perspective. Lastly, it provided an example of the framework in use. 

References

Audard, C. (2007). John Rawls. Acumen Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315712109

BBC Radio 4. (2015). The Veil Of Ignorance [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8GDEaJtbq4 

Coursen, C. C. (2007). Theory to practice: The application of John Rawls’ theory of justice as fairness to Medicaid. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses.

CrashCourse. (2016). Aristotle & virtue theory: crash course philosophy #38. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrvtOWEXDIQ

Driver, J. (2009, March 27). The History of Utilitarianism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/

Herron, T. L., & Manuel, T. (2022). Ethics of U.S. government policy responses to the COVID‐19 pandemic: A utilitarianism perspective. Business and Society Review (1974), 127(S1), 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/basr.12259

Johnston, J. (2020). Where Public Interest, Virtue Ethics and Pragmatic Sociology Meet: Modelling a Socially Progressive Approach for Communication. Westminster Papers in Communication & Culture, 15(2), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.16997/wpcc.355

Kraut, R. (2022). Aristotle’s Ethics. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/

Pachauri, S., & Pachauri, A. (2023). Global Perspectives of COVID-19 Pandemic on Health, Education, and Role of Media (1st ed. 2023.). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1106-6

Wenar, L. (2008, March 25). John Rawls. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/

West, H. R. (2006). The Blackwell guide to Mill’s Utilitarianism (1st ed.). Blackwell Pub.

Whyman, T. (2017). Adorno’s Aristotle Critique and Ethical Naturalism. European Journal of Philosophy, 25(4), 1208–1227. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejop.12243

On Abandonment

"Nothing veils a star" (Aurelius, book 11, chapter 27) and we too, should confront existence with no intermediary. Indeed, we are "thrown into existence" (Aho, 2023) and in that existence, we immediately are encumbered with veils in the forms of pre-conceived meaning, religious and philosophical shackles, genetic predispositions, cultural responsibilities and expected duties. Many of these veils were placed there by our parents. Some of us willingly accepted the veils, while others of us have been figuring out ways to cast them off in order to see existence clearly and with our own eyes. Fortunately, for some, the beginning of the un-veiling takes place in the form of abandonment.

Abandonment can take a couple of forms. Whereas an individual relied on some notion for guidance, and that concept or belief failed to prove accurate or useful, then that person experiences abandonment in the form of broken trust. The other form of abandonment would be pure and simple subtraction of an idea, a person or a belief. Sometimes a single event of abandonment may fit both descriptions.

Abandonment may trigger fear and anxiety, or perhaps instill confidence. Regardless, the opportunity for growth and resilience are present with each abandonment, in that the definition and clarity of existence moves from low-fidelity to a higher fidelity until one can, eventually, comprehend existence as it is.

When Nietzsche declared the death of God, he was observing what had already transpired in the hearts of men for quite some time - that "God may have been an illusion, but ... a necessary illusion" (Gravil & Addis, 2007, p. 21). While God supplied aim, values, emotional relief and fortitude and even a future, the lived experience of man could not be fully supported by those dogmas. What he was taught on Sunday did not fully equip him on Monday, Tuesday, or any other day of the week. God abandoned man. Truthfully, however, all along, God was a creation of man and man abandoned that creation. Even for the Christian Kierkegaard, God could not be objectively ascertained (2007). Therefore, while some men may proclaim God is alive and well, he nonetheless must admit that his experience is one of faith and, at best, a belief, else eight billion people might agree on the definition and objectivity of God like they agree the sun shines.

All people must be abandoned or experienced abandonment. If they have the will to live and exist, each abandonment yields a stronger, sharper existence. While some abandonments are temporary, and others are permanent, with each successive sense of isolation, the individual is forced to use his own devices or seek help from others in his sphere - he must swim, or sink. His use of his rational thinking and volition (what is 'up to him') is what he must rely on if he is going to swim.

Below are a few reflections of milestone-abandonments, from my life, and how I dealt with each one.

I was seemingly fortunate in my childhood to avoid abandonments. Family, community, school, church and God were all relatively stable aspects of my life. My parents did not divorce, as did many of my friends' parents in the early 1980s and 1990s. There were no attacks on my religion or religion in general for that matter. My friends and I attended church on Sundays, went to school and played sports during the week, achieved our Scout badges and awards, served our community, and generally we got along and were decent kids. I felt secure in many aspects.

Certainly with visual reminders like the image to the side (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2023), my confidence in some mental and moral foundation rested in Christ. Entwined in that mental paradigm was family and community.

But despite religious reassurances, I still suffered temporary, local abandonments. Being the youngest of seven children, my older siblings all left for college while I was still in public school. Some of the older ones would come home to visit at times, and when the hour arrived for them to drive back to college, I felt an immense sense of abandonment. To this day, I feel the sting of tears in my eyes and the pain in my gut and heart as I sat on the porch and watched them pull out of the driveway, down the street and out of sight.

Leaving the nest of home to go to college and a church mission to Guatemala felt like a deeper abandonment. The structure of church and school and being with friends and like-minded people softened the blow, but despite these lifelines, the fear and anxiety of saying goodbye, first to my parents after they dropped me off at the MTC, and then later saying goodbye to my brother and sister at the San Francisco airport, en route to Guatemala City, brought a harsh new reality of feeling alone.

3000 miles away from home and 6000 miles away from my parents (who were in Prague), living in the lush highland jungles of Guatemala brough a fresh new realization of abandonment. My courage was fortified not only in Christ, but also by the words of the prophets in the scriptures and the leaders in the Mormon church, both local and global. More experienced missionaries also were a succor to my homesickness and longing for old comforts. At that time, I had not known of Seneca's toti se inserens mundo (Seneca, 2024, Letter 66) but I certainly tossed myself into the work and service in front of me. In fact, early on, while living in Zona 18 in Pinares del Norte, I was so overcome with homesickness, I took all reminders, photos and letters of my family and stuffed them in the bottom of a suitcase and vowed to never look at them until I got over these emotions. My focus and attention, directed at learning Spanish, talking to people and serving others, proved to be the solution for overcoming the sense of isolation and abandonment. And while the spiritual practices of prayer and reading scripture were helpful, it was attending to the matters at present which ultimately resolved the fear and anxiety.

If homesickness weren't enough, I also had to manage being ill in a foreign country. I don't know what it was, but a doctor informed me that I contracted a virus. Some 29 years later, all I remember is being very sick and having the worse migraine in my life. Someone made the decision to send me to a hospital and I ended up spending a night being cared for. The next day, I was released to the care of other missionaries who kept an eye on me while I made a full recovery. During that time, I met Moses Vargas, to whom I disclosed my homesickness and loneliness.  He helped me understand I was not alone and that I lived and worked and existed alongside several hundred missionaries in Guatemala. When I said my prayers at 6am, I was praying with all the other missionaries and that thought brought me comfort. It was something more real and tangible than the comfort the Holy Ghost or Christ could provide.

One good thing about abandonment is that it reveals how humans play games with humans in the name of God. When I threw myself into the work, or when Moses Vargas and others consoled me, people would reason that it was the Holy Ghost and God and Jesus who inspired me or those 'other people' to bring me comfort and support. Looking back on this, I realize they were simply imbuing social ethics with a smattering of divinity.

When a leader of the church takes credit for other people's choices and deeds in the name of God, they do so in an attempt to garner more power for the church, not necessarily for God. A relevant example of this is from Uchtdorf (2019) wherein he makes the argument that when people perform acts of kindness, they are doing so in the name of God, and more specifically the church. However, the logic does not work both ways. If the same person (e.g. a missionary or member of the church) provides service to others, the church will attempt to take the credit, but if that same person does something dishonorable in the eyes of the church (e.g. use their tithing funds to give to a soup kitchen rather than to the church), the church will deem this act as not in the name of God and may even discipline the member (e.g. excommunication). The key message from the church to the individual is this: "obey and we will take the credit and uphold you the best we can, but dissent or misalign, we disavow you and you are on your own."

This key principal, even if unspoken, is discerned more acutely after having served a mission for the church. There is significant management and stewardship of a young man or woman for the first 20 or so years of their life. There are checkpoints, interviews, and to-do items in order to keep the person on the right track. But after those first 20 or so years, you are left to your own devices to keep the program going. As long as you follow the program after serving a mission (getting married, holding callings, having kids and repeating the cycle), you will fall under the good graces of the church. But if you don't follow the program or even fit the mold of a 'good' member, you are abandoned since your usefulness to the church is no longer valuable.

For me, in 1997, I realized I was a tool for the church. My whole life had been a checklist with regular interviews to ensure I was checking off all the boxes. And then when I returned home from my mission to Guatemala, it all went silent; I was abandoned and truly left to my own devices. When you've been told how to think and how to live the first 21 years of your life and when it all goes silent, you feel lost and disoriented.

I stayed true to the program, for the most part. I dated, eventually married, and my wife and I began a family. We accepted church callings and did all the enduring to the end we could muster. Children were born, babies were blessed, family home evenings were held, church attendance was regular like a metronome. During the week, my wife raised and cared for our children, while I commuted to work in the morning, worked all day, and commuted in the evening. Dinner, playtime, reading books, watching movies, playing games, cleaning up, bed time and then repeat. If only I had read Camus early in life, perhaps I would have been better prepared for what was coming.

In his Myth of Sisyphus, Camus observes, "we get into the habit of living before acquiring the habit of thinking" (1979). A bit later in the book he describes what I eventually would feel after 10 years of living the Mormon program. "Rising, streetcar, four hours in the office or the factory, meal, streetcar, four hours of work, meal, sleep, and Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday and Saturday according to the same rhythm - this path is easily followed most of the time. But one day the 'why' arises and everything begins in that weariness tinged with amazement" (1979). For me the 'why' was eternal life with my family and before that, I was yearning for confirmation or refinement or even sanctification. But there was no whiff of this to be found. The weariness became almost unbearable and the platitudes Mormonism offered did not outweigh the church's never-ending demands for more time, more money, more of my soul, more sacrifice on my part only for the benefit of the church. In a time when I needed support and energy or even relief, I only ever heard calls for more sacrifice. I felt abandoned. Confronted with metaphysical abandonment, I perceived that my choices were limited and I could not see any resolution other than death.

I began seeing a therapist in May 2014. She helped me see that I was enough - that existing and being there for my wife and kids and others was sufficient. And while she helped me correct some faulty value judgements I had been making, I recognized the space in which I could simply exist. I finally existed before landing on essence. Between 2014 and 2015, I deconstructed my beliefs and eventually I abandoned Mormonism, at least in my heart and mind. Never have I grown so much, emotionally, philosophically, mentally, than in those years of truly discovering myself and what my values were. I finally could choose my essence, rather than conform to what someone else decided for me.

By 2019, my wife and kids were also "out" of the church. The last time we attended services was December 2018. On a Monday in January 2019, the lay leader (bishop) came to our home, unannounced, and correctly claimed that we were less than honest about our temple recommend responses and he demanded we surrender recommends to him. This was tantamount to a slap in the face and an abject judgment of what our church thought of us after all the sacrifices in time and money we gave it. We were abandoned by our church. There were no questions about how we got to that point and there were no offers of succor to bring us back to the 'right' path. We had been fully abandoned and we could not be happier.

2020 brought a new kind of abandonment. The COVID-19 pandemic introduced isolation policies which effectively brought a type of abandonment many had never experienced before. The only people we could come in contact with were our families, and friends and neighbors at a safe distance. The days seemed long as we sat by our computers, working remotely, and watched the evening news reports of the thousands of deaths from people who succumbed to the virus as well as people who died because of isolation polices (e.g lack of medical care). Politicians and medical experts played on our fears. Panic spread as people tried to hoard supplies and many resources became scarce.

Working for an oil and gas company during the pandemic was surreal, especially when the price of oil inverted (Gaffen, 2022). Radical changes and ruthless prioritization became the norm. Many outsourcing and offshoring projects, which had only been planned for in the coming years, became a rough-shod reality. Expats living in the United States were quickly abandoned by the corporation and were hurriedly repatriated with little to no concern for safety protocols for them or their families. Normal ranking of employees, in which a very small percentage are put on improvement plans, were flipped to become tools for cutting workforce. People who had been planning to retire in an organized fashion were shamelessly forced to quit or retire early.

When things began to somewhat stabilize in late 2021 and into 2022, those who remained with the company had to begin picking up the pieces. After losing so many people, help was hard to find. Having endured multiple rounds of complaints from his staff, one manager reportedly told his group of 300 employees "no one is coming to rescue us; we have to save ourselves." I can think of no better existentialist motto than that. While some have the luxury of creating layers of security, friends, people, processes and tools around them like a cocoon, eventually all of that gets stripped away and the individual is abandoned and he realizes no one is going to live his life for him - no one is going to provide all the answers - he is on his own, so he might as well accept it and begin rescuing himself.

Toward the end of 2022, nearly two years ago from the time of this writing, my mother died and abandoned me. To be fair, I had mostly abandoned her in my mind, but not in my heart. I loved her dearly and often remember fondly my times, memories and experiences with her. Eventually I came to see her as not only my mother, but simply another human, with flaws, insecurities, her own narrative and philosophy for life. And while it was more emotional than I had expected, her passing to me brought a new-found fortitude and love for life. As I recalled her life through my perspective, I realized how much light she gave me. Whether she intended it or not, the fact remains that I have instilled in me an unending source of motivation to seek the sunny side of life because of how she raised me. A mere glance at the sun, and feeling the rays on my face, reminds me of her. I don't know if I would have had this blessing if she had not abandoned me when she died. She died November 10, 2022 and the sun still shines.

My father still lives at the time of this writing, but he inches toward his own death. After my mother passed away, my father seemed to have a tough time adjusting. On one hand, he seemed to have a new lease in life and claimed he would live to 140 years old and even verbalized aspirations of going back to college to pursues a masters degree in psychology after he heard a speech by a trained psychologist. His need for companionship endured after mother's death and every attractive woman he met, regardless of age, became the one he was going to marry. He dominated in cornhole tournaments and he loved to sing for all the other residents in the assisted living home. He spent his days visiting and trying to inspire the remaining members of The Greatest Generation. He has always sought a way to be useful and to help others. This undying zest for life has been an inspiration to me. While amusing, his fight to continue to live and exist even to the age of 140, teaches me to also fight for meaning and existence. This passion for life is even more extraordinary knowing that his father psychologically abandoned him through anger and lack of conveying love and care to my father. Alas, my father, too, will pass; life will abandon him and when that day comes, I'll be an orphan and know that my own death will someday arrive.

All experience abandonment, even the Christian god Jesus. As Camus (1956) writes in The Rebel, even the son of God experienced the most exquisite abandonment. Believing he was solving two of mankind's greatest problems, evil and death, after he hung on the cross in agony and in utter despair, Christ came to conclude that all are abandoned no matter the divinity, luxury or privilege. Hence he gut-wrenchingly yells out the lama sabactani (see Matthew 27) and is awestruck at his total and complete isolation. Camus sardonically notes Christ's "agony would have been mild if it had been alleviated by hopes of eternity" (1956). When I read this passage a few weeks ago, it struck my like a lightening bolt. I imagined Jesus experiencing an unexpected and panicked brush with reality. After having believed his own message for over 30 years, he came to realize that he too would suffer the same fate that billions before and after him experienced. He was not who he claimed to be. No one is immune from abandonment.

Since we are all abandoned, we must all stand on our own. No one is going to fully live your life for you. You must seek out your own meaning and purpose, especially when you come to find out that no one knows what this absurd existence really means. If you come from GenX, like me, you will probably never forget the message from Dead Poet's Society (Wier, 1989): carpe diem! Seize control of your life! Make your own meaning! Exist since no one else will nor can exist for you.

In conclusion, I leave this thought and quote which conveys the idea of: no one has found an instruction manual for life and you're on your own.

The problem for Kierkegaard is entwined with our fundamental abandonment in freedom. Man is a free project: which is to say that there is no ‘world-historical’ source of instruction and no pellucid God-ward imperative. In what concerns us most deeply we are thrown back on our own decision. The speculative reason says, Kierkegaard, cannot help us in the matter of existence, for to speculative reason, existence ‘is a matter of infinite indifference’. Furthermore, I am utterly alone in my plight (Gravil & Addis, 2007, p. 47).

References

Aho, K. (2023, January 6). Existentialism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/

Aurelius, M. (2021). Meditations (R. Waterfield, Trans.). Basic Books.

Camus, A. (1956). The rebel : an essay on man in revolt (A. Bower, Trans.). Alfred A. Knopf.

Camus, A. (1979). The Myth of Sisyphus (J. O’Brien, Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1955)

Gaffen, D. (2022, February 24). Analysis: Oil’s journey from worthless in the pandemic to $100 a barrel. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/oils-journey-worthless-pandemic-100-barrel-2022-02-24/

Gravil, R., & Addis, M. (2007). Existentialism (1st ed.). Humanities-Ebooks, LLP.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. (2023). You Are Never Alone. Churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/media/image/mormonad-you-are-never-alone-4a54532?lang=eng

Seneca. (2024).  Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales. Uchicago.edu. https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/philologic4/Latin/navigate/129/7/4/

Uchtdorf, D. F. (2019). “You Are My Hands.” Churchofjesuschrist.org. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2010/04/you-are-my-hands?lang=eng#p1

Weir, P. (Director). (1989). Dead poets society [Film]. Touchstone Pictures.

Margin Notes, Thoughts on "Beyond the Individual" by John Willcock

Really methodical review of how Stoics arrived at a social ethical system. It does take some 'leaps' in terms of connections (there is a bit of 'faith' and 'trust' in believing we are connected ... your daimon is a fragment of the greater part of the divine cosmos), "organized, planned and controlled system of cause and effect" in which we live. There is no room whatsoever for the Epicurean 'swerve' (sorry, Friendo).

p. 38 - is a fig tree 'bad' if it doesn't produce figs? or was it the will of the cosmos that a fig tree doesn't produce figs?

some thoughts at the end of chapter 2:

• Stoics claim there is a connection of my divine fragment to the Whole, yet *no one* and *no thing* has access to my mind.
• Socrates mentions his daimon, but *no one* had access to Socrates' mind
• Is there an "ought" or duty to listen to my daimon or other peoples' daimon?
• Who's divine fragment has priority if there a dispute of action?

Other questions and notes:

p. 67 - "no change is harmful in Stoicism. Is all change the universal's rational, harmless, systematic processes in motion?" ... Can humans cause harm to God / the Cosmos?

p. 68 - the universe does no harm to itself, "does not infer that every human will always act in accordance with the whole though." The parts can be out of harmony, but God is still unharmed.

p. 75 - "built into our rational thoughts and actions are instead the ends of our fellow rational beings and the Whole." ... Prisoner's Dilemma --> coordination. If I act virtuously (morally), then I am cooperating and coordinating with the common good.

p. 78 - the universe created hierarchy, yet Willcock pushes against this argument.

p. 102 - it is a struggle to accept one's duties, while watching many others deny their own. a challenge is: what to do when others fail in duty to you? p. 104 provides a possible answer? "how we make ourselves available as the objects of moral actions for others" ... it takes effort to 'open up' and be involved in others' lives.

For example ... p. 112 ... in 2020 global pandemic, some argued our duty was to stay 'locked down' and inject experimental vaccines for the common good. Now, four years later, it is more widely accepted that the lockdowns caused far more harm, and long-lasting harm to the common good. Many made the argument *against* lock downs and forced vaccine mandates, yet were vilified. Both sides of the debate were based on doing what is best for the common good.  This is one of many, many examples of how Stoicism does not provide a clear, objective moral compass. As long as a Stoic argument is in support of taking action and supporting duties for the common good, then it is accepted. Stoicism does not settle debates about the best course of action for the common good, hence war is the father of us all (Heraclitus).

p. 116, "the primary way in which we can live in accordance with our rational nature for the Stoics is to think and act with the consciousness that we are universally and communally interconnected beings."  fine, we are connected, but are we good about understanding cause and effect predictions? no.

p. 140, "we have at our disposal the capacity to live an emotionally stable life." Is mental illness due to lack of training?

"Developing a mental resilience to external threats requires a similar developmental process for Epictetus.  Just as people can learn to be resilient to 'heat and cold,' likewise we can develop our mind to be indifferent to external activations of our emotions." You still care about your duties, but are not emotionally tied to them.

p. 141, God defined (what is good): "well-ordered, just, holy, pious, self-controlled, useful, honorable."

p. 155, "Seneca's advice concerns how she can avoid similar kinds of grief. This does not mean viewing the present world from a position of hopelessness and with the mindset that all will be inevitably lost. Seneca advocates rather the importance of premeditating how quickly things can change, in order to hope for outcomes that are best, while being 'prepared' for what can happen that would be the 'worst.'" ... Why not? Even existential angst can teach greater resiliency!

p. 158, "We might ask here whether everyone has to be individually living rationally for the universe to be perfectly rational at any point in time. This is a difficult question to answer, given that in one regard everything in the world is perfectly rationally ordered, in that the world's causal structure rolls on whether we are individuals want it to or not." Do all need to be rational - live according to Nature - for God to be happy? Nope!

p. 161, "we see here that when we do anything, if while doing that we are aware of what we share with others, then our happiness and well-being is ordered in tandem with the happiness and well-being of others." But we still disagree about 'doing something for the common good.' 'You do your worst, I'll do my best' seems to be the attitude to take, and to remain indifferent to the outcome. Just because you argue for action for the common good, does not mean it is the best course of action for the common good. Therefore, do some propose an action 'for the common good' in bad faith?  Is it really self-interest disguised as common good? Perhaps! And what are we to make of 'my tribe' against 'your tribe'? Again, there is no objective moral compass in Stoicism.

In sum, really good book, but quite often it is R-E-P-E-T-I-T-I-V-E, to the point it could have been a fourth to third shorter if the book had better editing.

PSYCH 406 (Psychopathology) - Suicide as Related to Major Depressive Disorder

Abstract

This essay describes the symptoms and diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder, with an emphasis on the symptoms of thoughts of death and suicidal ideation. It further reviews methods of treatment, and then finishes with a review of ways therapists can forge and strengthen therapeutic relationships with suicidal patients.

 

Introduction

To exist or not, as a human being, is up to us. Albert Camus (1979) contends suicide is the only genuinely profound philosophical question to answer. True, every individual has the choice to exit life, however the cost of that exit can be significant for those left behind. Not even counting the invaluable cost of loss of life, suicide attempts alone accounted for nearly $27B in health care costs in 2019 in the United States (Hughes, et al., 2023). Even despite the massive expense from the fallout of suicide attempts, the emotional toll and impacts heaped on loved ones and friends who remain behind in the wake of a successful or unsuccessful suicide will take countless hours of therapy and grieving and perhaps even significant pharmacological expense to remediate. From a psychological, to an emotional, to an economic perspective, any way to advance the understanding of the patient’s motivation for suicide and greater insight into how to prevent suicides would be a worthy endeavor not only for the individual, but also for the common good. To that end, this essay will explain the most common disorder which leads to suicide.

This essay will describe major depressive disorder, including all the criteria that must be met in order to diagnose an individual with major depressive disorder (Maddux & Winstead, 2016 and American Psychiatric Association, 2022). Along with those criteria, it will also outline the symptoms and warning signs of those seeking to end their life (National Institute of Mental Health, 2022). It will then review three major avenues of treatment for major depressive disorder, which include electroconvulsive, psychopharmacological and psychotherapeutic forms (Maddux & Winstead, 2016). Lastly, the essay will delve into the topic of clinicians establishing the clinician-patient therapeutic alliance to assist patients in opening up about the challenges they face with suicidal ideation (Foster, et al., 2021).

Description, Symptoms, Diagnostic Criteria

While the impacts of major depressive disorder (MDD) can be persistent and influence human productivity, symptoms can worsen and lead to the untimely death of the sufferer. Maddux and Winstead (2016) note that MDD will perhaps be the number one cause of premature death and human disability globally in the next one hundred years. In the United States alone, the suicide rate has increased over a third between 1999 and 2018 and with the recent COVID-19 pandemic, that trend has continued to rise (Moutier, 2021). Therefore, spotting MDD symptoms effectively and early is key to suicide prevention.

The symptoms of MDD described in the DSM-5-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) begin with understanding what a major depressive episode is. Symptoms include nine key markers: 1) a depressed mood, which may include feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, 2) the loss of interests or pleasure in activities the person normally enjoys, 3) losing 5% or more of their weight in 30 days while not intending to diet, 4) poor sleeping habits stemming from insomnia or perhaps sleeping all day, 5) constant agitation in movement or a significant lack of movement, 6) general lack of energy, 7) self-loathing, exceptional feelings of guilt or worthlessness, 8) significant challenges in concentration, deliberation, thinking or even decision-making, and most importantly, 9) repetitive thoughts of dying, death or suicide. As for this ninth symptom, the patient does not need to demonstrate it every day for a two-week period; once is sufficient to qualify. The patient must exhibit five or more of the nine listed symptoms (two of which must be a depressed mood and loss of interests) for a period of at least 14 days, and these must cause a substantial impact on their social life, job or other important aspects of their life, and the attribution of these symptoms must not stem from some other condition such as drug use, or another disorder such as schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 2022, p. 183, 185). Lastly, in order for MDD to qualify as the diagnosis, the patient must demonstrate having one or more major depressive episodes, without any type of mania or hypomania.

One other important aspect of the diagnosis is related to whether there is an identifiable cause of the patient experiencing the symptoms. Some people may have recently dealt with an impactful and emotional event in their life such as the loss of a baby, a bankruptcy or loss of job, living through an act of God such as having a home and all possessions burned down in a wildfire or even having contracted a serious medical illness such as terminal cancer (American Psychiatric Association, 2022, p. 183). While many people may exhibit major depressive episode symptoms stemming from one of these drastic life events, it does not mean the person qualifies for the diagnosis of MDD.

As noted in the ninth symptom of MDD, if a patient has repetitive thoughts of death or suicide just once in a two-week period, along with the other symptoms, then they may have MDD. It is also important to note external markers which may predict if a patient is suicidal. Maddux and Winstead (2016, p. 193) observe that a majority of suicidal people convey their intent to kill themselves. More specifically, the National Institute of Mental Health (2022) provides a list of warning signs which loved ones and other people around the patient can spot. The patient may verbally express ideas of suicide, feelings of guilt or sense of being a burden on other people. They may express feelings such as helplessness, hopelessness, being trapped, having no purpose, or being sad, anxious, angry or expressing unendurable pain be it physical or emotional. Lastly, the patient may communicate in non-verbal ways such as searching online for ways to die, pushing close ones away or retreating from normal social interactions, acting with recklessness (e.g. risky skiing, driving, cliff jumping), consuming more drugs or alcohol, and sleeping and eating less. Related to the warning sign of recklessness, Maddux and Winstead (2016) note that suicides may be underreported because the act of suicide may appear to be accidental. For example, 15% of automobile accidents with a fatality may actually have been suicide related.

Treatment Options

There are three major avenues of treatment for MDD: electroconvulsive, psychopharmacological and psychotherapeutic therapy. The essay will briefly describe mechanisms which address the first two methods and then more deeply address the third method through a discussion on cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT).

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was discovered as a form of therapy in the 1930s (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, p. 205). The method for application is to deliver between 70 and 130 volts of electrical shock to the patient’s brain. The patient may endure nine or ten rounds of ECT over the course of several weeks. While ECT has proven to be somewhat effective, experts still do not know exactly why it works in some cases. One theory is that electrical shocks downregulate 5-HT (serotonin) receptors. Despite proving somewhat effective, patients’ memory functions degrade, and they have a more difficult time learning and recalling knowledge. Related to ECT is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS does not produce memory dysfunction and can be more precisely tuned. The only side effects reported are benign headaches and minor discomfort.

Pharmacological forms of therapy for major depressive disorder address dysfunction in serotonin regulation (Maddux & Winstead, 2016). Studies have shown that when individuals’ serotonin levels are depleted or if reuptake has been altered, then it begins to have a negative impact on mood, which may act as a catalyst for a depressive episode. Three medications have been used for quite some time to treat depression: monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants. More recent developments in antidepressant medications include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). All five medications work in some form or fashion to regulate serotonin levels. As for which one should be used with a patient, it is often a matter of finding the right medication and dosage with the least harmful side effects. One emerging medication to address depression is ketamine. Rather than targeting the regulation of serotonin, ketamine seems to aid in the regrowth of important synapses in the brain, improving brain neuroplasticity (Yale Medicine, 2021). Researchers are discovering that ketamine treatment coupled with CBT provides rapid and long-lasting positive change. Not only do ketamine and CBT together prove efficacious, but Maddux and Winstead (2016, p. 198) note that CBT coupled with other appropriate medication is more effective than either CBT or medication alone.

CBT and ACT are two well-known psychotherapeutic frameworks which help the patient to fundamentally change their underlying thinking to address negative perceptions of themselves and environment (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, p. 197-199). CBT encompasses multiple ways to help the patient alter the underlying thinking framework for how the patient processes events, as well as to couple their thinking to action. For example, people who suffer from MDD would be asked to recognize and write down their negative thoughts, along with the causes and effects which lead them to think this way. They would then be asked to assess and question those thoughts to ascertain if they truly match reality and rationality. Through this process, the patient begins to reconstruct their thinking narrative in a more positive and productive manner.

CBT is especially helpful in challenging and questioning hopelessness thinking in suicidal patients. In fact, studies have shown (Bryan, 2019) that versions of CBT for suicide prevention (CBT-SP) are so effective, that these specific forms of CBT have been recommended as standard care procedures for all suicidal patients. CBT-SP typically includes three successive phases. In the first phase, clinicians assess the risk of the patient and then collaboratively work with the patient to form a crisis and treatment plan. In the second phase, the therapist and patient work on revealing the dysfunctional thinking patterns and negative internal dialogues which lead to feelings and emotions related to helplessness, hopelessness, being trapped, and having no purpose. In the last phase, therapists and patients tie everything together by creating a plan to minimize relapse. Bryan (2019, p. 249) further observes the effectiveness of CBT-SP by stating that patients of CBT-SP were one-half to two-thirds less likely to attempt suicide when compared to treatment as usual.

ACT can be viewed as an extension and evolution of CBT (Maddux & Winstead, 2016, p. 198-199). While ACT is similar to CBT, it differs from its aim. ACT does not focus on minimizing the negative symptoms of depression, but to empower the patient with greater flexibility in their thinking. ACT helps the patient understand their core values and then proceed in a consistent manner with those values. ACT prompts the patient to pause and reflect on what they deeply value in life, and then to engage with their emotions and thoughts, rather than questioning them. By engaging with their thoughts and emotions through a comparison with their core values, the patient is able to discern gaps between who they are and who they wish to be, and then take specific and meaningful action. For example, ACT has proven to be quite successful with veterans dealing with suicide (Walser, et al., 2015, p. 30). It has shown that when a patient experiences suicidal ideation, the therapist would work with the patient to explore the patient’s core values, either through dialogue or a values assessment test. As the patient is confronted with ideas of death, they can accept those thoughts and pivot toward ways to pursue and fulfill meaning in their life by focusing on something they value.

Article Summarization: Strengthening the Therapist-patient Alliance

In the context of suicidal ideation, it has been observed that most suicidal individuals do not explicitly disclose through self-reporting. Foster, et al. (2021) note that only 24% reveal their suicidal plans through disclosure. The driving causes of hesitating to divulge their thoughts of ending their life are fears of judgement, hospitalization, and losing independence. Therefore, if therapists, clinicians and others who are in a position to help the patient can establish trust and openness in communication, they may be able to garner the patient’s confidence and assist them in getting the needed medication and therapeutic treatment. Foster, et al. (2021) argue that three specific aspects on which clinicians can focus to improve the therapist-patient alliance are: 1) awareness and management of countertransference of negative emotions, 2) deploying communication techniques which are empathic and 3) leveraging the patient’s subjective experience as feedback.

Countertransference occurs when the therapist experiences conscious or unconscious projections or judgements of the patient, which in some cases may interfere with the therapeutic process (American Psychological Association, 2018). Foster, et al. (2021, p. 258) note that therapists can exude negative emotions to an individual intent on ending their life. Quickly assessing countertransference is crucial to strengthening the therapist-patient alliance. The Therapist Response Questionnaire-Suicide Form is an innovative tool to rapidly assess countertransference and enables the therapist to secure supervisory coaching and support to manage countertransference.

Empathy is how one person relates to another, including focusing on commonalities as well as differences, which enables shared insight between individuals (Foster, et al., 2021, p. 259). Clinicians and therapists must have a life-long commitment to developing and mastering empathy in their practice, especially when working with suicidal patients. Besides continuing education and hands-on training seminars to learn and practice empathy, there are also tools which assist therapists to hone their empathy skills. The Empathic Communication Coding System (ECCS) assists in identifying opportunities for the therapist to practice a range of empathic responses. The ECCS aids in identifying the patient’s statements as emotion, progress or challenge and then suggests a range of potential ways a therapist could use empathy. For example, a widow may mention how she constantly thinks of her deceased husband, to which a therapist could respond with, “Are you thinking about death?” or with the more empathic response of, “It seems that these thoughts you are having are difficult. Has suicide crossed your mind?” Therapists who master the art of empathy will improve the chances of the patient opening up and being more receptive to treatment rather than suicide.

Lastly, when therapists form a solid alliance with the patient, they can leverage that trust to gain insight from the patient feedback. Gathering feedback from a patient who has attempted suicide or had thoughts of suicide can prove rich in understanding the paths leading to death as well as paths leading to recovery (Foster, et al., 2021, p. 259). Collecting this feedback and sharing it broadly enables the wider community to benefit from this untapped resource. Tools such as the Consultation and Relational Empathy assessment and Working Alliance Inventory collect data from the patient’s perspective. These feedback mechanisms reinforce patient autonomy as well as shed light on the subjective experience of the patient.

In sum, there are innovative ways and tools to facilitate greater collaboration between the therapist and suicidal patient. First, the therapist must be aware of and manage countertransference of negative emotions. Second, they must constantly improve their communication techniques by focusing on improving empathy. Lastly, they can tap into the patient’s subjective experience to use as feedback in the therapeutic process.

Conclusion

In conclusion, with the increasing trend of suicides globally, and the severe impacts they have on society, this essay endeavored to illuminate the reader on the topic of major depressive disorder, with an emphasis on the symptom of suicidal ideation and the diagnostic criteria indicating a risk for suicide. The essay then examined three methods of treatment in the forms of electroconvulsive therapy, pharmacological and psychotherapeutic avenues. It specifically addressed CBT, CBT-SP and ACT in the context of suicidal patients. Finally, the essay discussed the importance of the clinician-patient therapeutic alliance, along with a set of tools to enable the fortification of that collaborative effort. 

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, text revision (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.

American Psychological Association. (2018). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/countertransference

Bryan, C. J. (2019). Cognitive behavioral therapy for suicide prevention (CBT‐SP): Implications for meeting standard of care expectations with suicidal patients. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 37(3), 247–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2411

Camus, A. (1979). The Myth of Sisyphus, and Other Essays. (J. O’Brien, Trans.). Penguin Books Ltd. (Original work published 1955)

Foster, A., Alderman, M., Safin, D., Aponte, X., McCoy, K., Caughey, M., & Galynker, I. (2021). Teaching Suicide Risk Assessment: Spotlight on the Therapeutic Relationship. Academic Psychiatry, 45(3), 257-261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-021-01421-2

Hughes, P. M., Phillips, D. C., McGrath, R. E., & Thomas, K. C. (2023). Examining Psychologist Prescriptive Authority as a Cost-Effective Strategy for Reducing Suicide Rates. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 54(4), 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000519

Maddux, J. E., & Winstead, B. A. (2016). Psychopathology : Foundations For A Contemporary Understanding (4th ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Moutier, C. Y. (2021). Innovative and Timely Approaches to Suicide Prevention in Medical Education. Academic Psychiatry, 45(3), 252–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-021-01459-2

National Institute of Mental Health. (2022). Warning Signs of Suicide. Www.nimh.nih.gov. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/warning-signs-of-suicide

Walser, R. D., Garvert, D. W., Karlin, B. E., Trockel, M., Ryu, D. M., & Taylor, C. B. (2015). Effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy in treating depression and suicidal ideation in Veterans. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 74, 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.08.012

Yale Medicine. (2021, July 30). Ketamine & Depression: How it Works - Yale Medicine Explains. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nW21-AYY_fs